Sri Lanka

Go back to Sri Lanka

Tea plantations in Sri Lanka in 2013, photo by Kosala Bandara, Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license

By Daniel Hayward, peer-reviewed by Pubudini Wickramaratne, Oxfam International

The island of Sri Lanka is 65,610 km² [1], and is densely populated with 21.8 million people [2]. The location, lying 50 km south of India, gave the island a strategic importance as trade shipping routes opened up around the world. This afforded attention from a number of European powers. Sri Lanka was colonised by the Portuguese in the 16th century, replaced by Dutch powers in the 17th and 18th centuries, and then the British up to independence in 1948. There is a pluralistic legal system, where a residual Roman-Dutch Law operates next to a British-style parliament and a French-style presidency but with few safeguards against abuse of power [3]. Economically, Sri Lanka carries a lower-middle-income status under World Bank measures [4]. However, this clouds a high level of income inequality, where 40% of the population live on less than 225 Sri Lankan rupees (1.2 USD) per day, and 70% of labour lies in the informal sector, without access to social welfare.

Sri Lanka is a deeply divided nation, with diverse ethnic groupings comprising Sinhalese (75% of the population), Sri Lankan Tamils (11%), Sri Lankan Moors (9%, mostly Sunni Muslims), and Indian Tamils (4%) [5]. Ethnic-religious tensions reached their apex through a civil war from 1983 to 2009, when a section of the minority Sri Lankan Tamils fought for a separate state. The 26-year war resulted in over 100,000 deaths, with around 800,000 people displaced at its peak in 2001 [6]. Following the end of the war, many returnees have been unable to prove land claims, with much land in the north and east of the country remaining in the hands of the military [7]. There are many challenges in achieving post-conflict reconciliation, and although 80% of land has been returned since the end of the war [8], resolving insecure ownership and multiple claims are key to any progress.

Land legislation and regulations

The legal system in Sri Lanka is highly pluralistic. Statutory law predominantly follows English Law. Where it is absent, as is the case in some areas of property, the courts may look to Roman-Dutch Law as the residual law which existed prior to statutes. There are also influences of Buddhist, Islamic and Hindu religious norms and rules, as well as the customs and traditions of Sinhala, Tamil and Muslim ethnic groups [9].

The 1978 Constitution, which was most recently amended in 2020, does not recognise land as a fundamental right. Its thirteenth amendment in 1987 called for the setting up of a National Land Commission to direct national land policy, but this has never transpired [10]. The amendment also called to establish provincial councils around the country to where power could be devolved. However, there has been a reluctance on the part of central authorities to grant a full ambit of power to the provinces, with further challenges of implementation facing the war-ravaged Northern and Eastern Provinces.

There are numerous laws relating to land [11], of which the main ones are outlined below:

● State Land Ordinance No. 8 (1947) – regulates the management, control and allocation of state lands.

● Land Development Ordinance No. 19 (1935, amended 1973) – addresses development and alienation of state lands, and is the primary instrument to govern against landlessness and provide for alienation of state lands.

● Land Grants (Special Provisions) Act No. 43 (1979) – guides the granting of agricultural and estate lands to landless persons.

● Land Reform Laws (1972 and 1975) – places a land ceiling on private ownership (50 acres or 25 acres for paddy), and nationalised land estates. This has allowed government access to 1 million hectares of land, although due to mismanagement less than 10% has been redistributed to landless persons [12].

● Land Acquisition Act No. 9 (1950) – allows state acquisition of private lands for public purposes.

● State Lands Encroachments Ordinance No. 12 (1840) – claims all forest, waste, and uncultivated land as state-owned, defining parameters and penalties for encroachment [13].

● State Lands (Recovery of Possession) Act No. 7 (1979) – lays down the legal framework where the state can recover possessions of land deemed to be held without authorisation [14].

● Prescription Ordinance No. 22 (1871) – defines rights of possession and ownership of land.

● Land Settlement Ordinance No. 20 (1931) – defines the procedures for land settlement and the constitution of state and private lands.

● Forest Ordinance No. 10 (1907, latest amendment 2009) – regulates the conservation, protection and management of forest and forest resources.

● Registration of Title Act No. 21 (1998) – outlines the means to register a title to a parcel of land, regulating further transactions.

Over 50 institutions administer and manage land in Sri Lanka, including the Forest, Wildlife Conservation, Survey, Land Use Policy Planning and Land Settlement Departments [15].

Land tenure classifications

In the simplest terms, there are two formal types of tenure in Sri Lanka, namely land under state control and that under private ownership [16]. Over 80% of all land is state-owned, including waste, forest, unoccupied or uncultivated lands [17]. Via the State Land Ordinance, 30-year leases (extendable to 50 years) can be given out to private parties or state-owned entities for residential, agricultural and commercial uses. State land can only be alienated under the seal of the President [18].

On the other side, formal private ownership was established by the British in 1863 using a deeds system. This is still in use, but the Registration of Title Act No. 21 (1998) marked the beginning of a process to convert deeds to titles under the Torrens system [19]. This means moving from rights as a physical document (deeds) particularly useful for transfer, to a conceptual collection or bundle of rights (title) that give clearer legal status for the owner over his or her land. Since 2007, the Bim Saviya Land Registration Programme has registered 1 million parcels under titles [20]. However, the process remains cumbersome, and it may take 30 to 40 years to handle all claims.

Land uses can cross over tenure forms. For example, there are both public and private forest and agricultural areas. For private agricultural land, shared ownership is common. This reflects a high population density, and landlessness remains a problem in rural areas. Nevertheless, the government has been reticent to hand out freehold titles in the fear that poor families sell off this land [21]. Even without this reticence, there lacks a systemic process to alienate state lands through permits and grants. This contributes to a high level of encroachment, as a way to gain access to state land which is then given legal recognition. There have also been several programs to address urban slums, such as in the Million Housing Programme, which provides apartments in high-rise buildings [22].

There are various recognised customary systems in Sri Lanka, the three main ones being Kandyan law in the Sinhalese areas that were conquered last by the British in 1815, Thesavalamai law for Tamil residents in the North, and Muslim law [23]. There are also Veddha communities found mainly in jungles in central and eastern provinces, whose rights to access forests and forest products have been limited [24]. The majority of land policies and programs favour the ethnic Sinhalese majority, such as protecting food security for this group and promoting geo-security interests [25]. This has contributed to land being a major factor in conflict between different ethnic groups in Sri Lanka.

Land use trends

Sri Lankans remain a predominantly rural people. In 2020, only 18.7% of the total population live in urban areas, and by 2050 this is still only predicted to rise to 31.6%, well under the present global average [26]. The amount of agricultural land has increased over the last twenty years from around 37.5% to over 45% of total land area [27]. After paddy rice, the three most significant crops are tea, and then rubber and coconut.

After decreasing over the last 150 years, in 1881 measured at 84% of the country, forest areas seem to be stabilising at around 34% cover across the country [28]. However, this remaining forest is highly fragmented, which represents a significant challenge when devising protection and management programmes. 55% of all natural forests lie within protected areas, including parks, nature reserves, protected forest areas, and comprise 842,079 hectares or 12.8% of all land [29]. There is a ban on felling trees in natural forests. However, there are also many trees in home gardens (private family holdings) over 850,000 hectares, which are not included in forest cover, yet demand consideration in terms of deforestation. Along the coastline of Sri Lanka, there are over 15,000 hectares of mangrove forest [30].

Sri Lanka is placed as one of the country’s most at risk of climate change [31]. There are fears that the extensive conversion of land, for example in wetlands, may increase vulnerability to landslides and flooding. Mapping of land conversion highlights significant land change from 2000-4 and 2010-18, during periods of economic stability that encourage land clearances and investment opportunities [32].

Mines at Jaffna Fort, photo by Rehman Abubakr, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license

Mines at Jaffna Fort, photo by Rehman Abubakr, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license

Land investments

There has been much displacement of land users to make way for large-scale commercial development projects for security, tourism and other purposes [33]. Agribusiness plantations are owned by State government departments, State corporations (in particular Janatha Estate Development Board [JEDB] and State Plantation Corporation [SPC]), village collectives, and private plantation owners [34]. In general policy is moving away from smallholding to large-scale commercial agriculture. There is no foreign ownership of land permitted, but it can be leased for up to 99 years.

One of the largest land use projects is the Mahaweli Development Program. Initiated in 1970, the program involved the construction of dams to provide irrigation for agriculture and power plants in central and east Sri Lanka [35]. More recently, in April 25th 2019, the Sri Lanka government and the United States Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) agreed on a five-year compact worth US$480 million. This includes mapping out state lands to identify areas for investment. There are fears that this signals a movement away from poverty reduction to private sector growth, resulting in the disenfranchisement of local farmers [36]. The present state of the compact is in doubt, with the recently-elected president Gotabaya Rajapaksa having campaigned in opposition to the project.

There is a concern that large-scale development projects are favouring Sinhalese-occupied rather than Tamil areas [37]. For example, there have been movements of investment into post-conflict areas, exacerbating multiple claims on the land [38]. There are now 309 mediation boards located around Sri Lanka that help deal with land disputes outside the formal justice system. A frequent form of dispute concerns the rate of compensation after land acquisition, and such matters are adjudicated in local courts [39].

In northern and eastern provinces, Special Mediation Boards relating to land were established in 2014 [40]. These join the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) and the National Human Rights Action Plan (NHRAP) in addressing a range of conflicts emerging out of the civil war in these areas, including displacement, return, overlapping claims, and demarcation of land.

Women’s land rights

Article 12 (1) of the Sri Lankan Constitution declares that no citizen shall be discriminated against on the grounds of race, religion, language, caste, sex, political opinion, place of birth or any one of such grounds. In article 27(6), a directive principle of state policy which is not justiciable, the state is required to ensure equality of opportunity to citizens, so that no citizen shall suffer any disability on the ground of race, religion, language, caste, sex, political opinion or occupation [41].

However, Tamil, Sinhalese and Muslim women all live in a patriarchal society, where land is commonly passed through the male side. Thesavalamai law for Tamil people prohibits full control for women over their property without the consent of their husbands, reflected in a dearth of land ownership for women in the north and east [42]. This is a particular problem for war widows or those with missing husbands, who cannot dispose of their land, or use it for collateral without permission from another male relative.

In statutory law, there is a male bias built into the Land Development Ordinance, where male relatives are favoured to inherit property not disposed of through a will [43]. The government has acknowledged this bias, and claims the law will be amended.

The Gender Inequality Index rating for Sri Lanka has improved in recent years. A Women’s Bureau was set up in 1978 and a Women’s Charter was adopted in 1993, both with the aim to achieve gender equality throughout society [44]. In 1981, Sri Lanka ratified the United Nations' Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Nevertheless, labour participation remains low for women at around 35%, and wages are frequently lower than men [45]. Political representation is poor, with women comprising a mere 5.8% of total members in parliament, and 2% in local government, which is one of the lowest rates in the world [46].

Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Tenure (VGGT)

The VGGT are actively being utilised in Sri Lanka. For example, in 2018 the National Fisheries Solidarity Organization (NAFSO) conducted a workshop with 40 representatives of small-scale fisheries organisations around the country, during which the VGGT provided a framework in developing proposals for National Fisheries Policy.

Photo by Rehman Abubakr, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license

Photo by Rehman Abubakr, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1947 – Promulgation of State Land Ordinance
Over 80% of land in Sri Lanka is state-owned, and the ordinance regulates the management, control and allocation of these areas.

1948 – Independence
Sri Lanka was colonised by the Portuguese in the 16th century, replaced by Dutch powers in the 17th and 18th centuries, and then the British up to independence in 1948.

1970 – Initiation of Mahaweli Development Program
The Mahaweli Development program involved the construction of a series dams to provide irrigation for agriculture and power plants in central and eastern Sri Lanka.

1987 – National Land Commission announced yet still not established
The thirteenth amendment of the Constitution in 1987 called for the setting up of a National Land Commission to direct national land policy, but this has never transpired.

1998 – Promulgation of Registration of Title Act
Set out the process to convert deeds to titles under the Torrens system, with various programmes registering over a million parcels under titles.

2009 – End of the Civil War
The 26-year war, between the majority Buddhist Sinhalese and minority separatist Hindu Sri Lankan Tamils, left some 294,000 people displaced, with many unable to prove land claims upon their later return.

2020 – 18.7% of the population living in urban areas
Sri Lanka remains fundamentally a rural society, with a slow transition expected to an urban population.

Where to go next?

The author’s suggestion for further reading

The Law and Society Trust is a non-profit organisation based in Columbo, working in human rights documentation, legal research, and advocacy in Sri Lanka. They have published a number of useful reports relating to land law, such as State Lands and Land Laws: A Hand Book [47].

In 2012, Land Watch Asia issued the report Land Ownership and the Journey to Self-Determination, which combines a history of Sri Lanka, the formulation of land laws, and a pluralistic system in the presence of multiple ethnics groupings [48].

Yusoff et al. zoom in to how land-based development programmes in Eastern Sri Lanka have impinged upon the rights of ethnic minorities [49]. In a post-conflict society, the Asia Foundation, Ministry of Justice and CDR Associates provide a manual to outline mechanisms for mediation and dispute resolution over land-related cases [50].

On the environmental side, the UN-REDD report Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy looks at forest governance in the context of an REDD+ programme [51].

There are also further organisations heavily involved in work on land, that are worth consulting. The Institute for Constitutional Studies, Centre for Policy Alternatives and Oxfam in Sri Lanka have various publications on land laws and policy, and can be contacted through their respective websites. MONLAR (Movement for Land and Agricultural Reform) carries out ground-level work on land and agriculture.

***References

[1] World Bank, 2020. World Bank Open Data [WWW Document]. The World Bank: Working for a world free of poverty. URL https://data.worldbank.org/

[2] ibid

[3] Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2020. BTI 2020 Country Report Sri Lanka. Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-part-bertelsmann-stiftung%E2%80%99s-transformation-index-bti-2020/bti-2020-country

[4] De Saram, F.J. & G., 2008. Issues in Ownership of Real Estate: Sri Lanka. F.J. & G. De Saram, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issues-ownership-real-estate-sri-lanka

[5] Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2020. BTI 2020 Country Report Sri Lanka. Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-part-bertelsmann-stiftung%E2%80%99s-transformation-index-bti-2020/bti-2020-country

[6] Siriwardhana, C., Wickramage, K., 2014. Conflict, forced displacement and health in Sri Lanka: a review of the research landscape. Conflict and Health, 8. https://landportal.org/library/resources/conflict-forced-displacement-and-health-sri-lanka-review-research-landscape

[7] Land Watch Asia, 2012. Land Ownership and the Journey to Self-Determination: Sri Lanka Country Paper. Land Watch Asia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-ownership-and-journey-self-determination

Lindberg, J., Herath, D., 2014. Land and grievances in post-conflict Sri Lanka: exploring the role of corruption complaints. Third World Quarterly 35, 888–904.

United Kingdom: Home Office, 2020. Report of a Home Office fact-finding mission to Sri Lanka. United Kingdom Home Office, London. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-home-office-fact-finding-mission-sri-lanka

[8] Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2020. BTI 2020 Country Report Sri Lanka. Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-part-bertelsmann-stiftung%E2%80%99s-transformation-index-bti-2020/bti-2020-country

[9] Munasinghe, B., 2019. Rethinking the Importance of Identifying and Addressing the Customary Laws in the Context of Land Law Making Process (Based on the Sri Lankan Experience of Registration of Title System). South East Asia Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law 19, 19–24. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-2289-1560/rethinking-importance-identifying-and-addressing-customary-laws

[10] Land Watch Asia, 2012. Land Ownership and the Journey to Self-Determination: Sri Lanka Country Paper. Land Watch Asia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-ownership-and-journey-self-determination

[11] Bartsch, J.D., Moore, C.W., 2015. Resolving Land Disputes: Effective Procedures & Strategies. CDR Associates, Ministry of Justice, Asia Foundation. https://landportal.org/library/resources/resolving-land-disputes

Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

[12] Land Watch Asia, 2012. Land Ownership and the Journey to Self-Determination: Sri Lanka Country Paper. Land Watch Asia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-ownership-and-journey-self-determination

[13] Näsström, R., Mattsson, E., 2011. Country Report Sri Lanka: Land-use change and forestry at the national and sub- national level. Focali Report, Gothenburg. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-91-86402-17-4/country-report-sri-lanka

[14] Rupesinghe, P.W., 2008. Inheritance Rights of Children in Sri Lanka. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/introduction-housing-and-land-laws-sri-lanka

[15] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

Näsström, R., Mattsson, E., 2011. Country Report Sri Lanka: Land-use change and forestry at the national and sub- national level. Focali Report, Gothenburg. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-91-86402-17-4/country-report-sri-lanka

[16] FAO, 2020. Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles [WWW Document]. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. URL http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

De Saram, F.J. & G., 2008. Issues in Ownership of Real Estate: Sri Lanka. F.J. & G. De Saram, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issues-ownership-real-estate-sri-lanka

[17] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

Dissanayake, D., Perera, B., 2015. State Lands and Land Laws: A Hand Book. Law & Society Trust, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/state-lands-and-land-laws-hand-book

[18] Dissanayake, D., Perera, B., 2015. State Lands and Land Laws: A Hand Book. Law & Society Trust, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/state-lands-and-land-laws-hand-book

[19] World Bank Group, 2017. Improving Quality of Land Administration in Sri Lanka. World Bank Group, Washington DC. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-number-127686/improving-quality-land-administration-sri-lanka

[20] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

[21] Land Watch Asia, 2012. Land Ownership and the Journey to Self-Determination: Sri Lanka Country Paper. Land Watch Asia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-ownership-and-journey-self-determination

[22] ibid

[23] ibid

[24] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

Dissanayake, D., Perera, B., 2015. State Lands and Land Laws: A Hand Book. Law & Society Trust, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/state-lands-and-land-laws-hand-boo

[25] Yusoff, M.A., Sarjoon, A., Awang, A., Hamdi, I.H., 2015. Land Policies, Land-based Development Programs and the Question of Minority Rights in Eastern Sri Lanka. Journal of Sustainable Development 8, 223–233. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-1913-9063-e-issn-1913-9071/land-policies-land-based-development-programs-and

[26] UN, 2020. World Urbanization Prospects 2019 [WWW Document]. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Dynamics. URL https://population.un.org/wpp/

[27] FAO, 2020. Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles [WWW Document]. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. URL http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[28] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

[29] ibid

[30] ibid

[31] Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2020. BTI 2020 Country Report Sri Lanka. Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-part-bertelsmann-stiftung%E2%80%99s-transformation-index-bti-2020/bti-2020-country

[32] Rathnayake, C.W., Jones, S., Soto-Berelov, M., 2020. Mapping Land Cover Change over a 25-Year Period (1993–2018) in Sri Lanka Using Landsat Time-Series. Land 9, 1–19.

[33] De Saram, F.J. & G., 2008. Issues in Ownership of Real Estate: Sri Lanka. F.J. & G. De Saram, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issues-ownership-real-estate-sri-lanka

[34] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

[35] Dent, D.L., Goonewardene, L.K.P.A., 1993. Resource Assessment and Land Use Planning in Sri Lanka: A case study. Environmental Planning Issues 4. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-1-84369-041-1/resource-assessment-and-land-use-planning-sri-lanka-case-study

[36] Mousseau, F., Currier, A., Fraser, E., Green, J., 2020. Driving Dispossession: The Global Push to “Unlock the Economic Potential of Land.” The Oakland Institute, Oakland. https://landportal.org/library/resources/driving-dispossession-global-push-%E2%80%9Cunlock-economic-potential-land%E2%80%9D

[37] Yusoff, M.A., Sarjoon, A., Awang, A., Hamdi, I.H., 2015. Land Policies, Land-based Development Programs and the Question of Minority Rights in Eastern Sri Lanka. Journal of Sustainable Development 8, 223–233. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-1913-9063-e-issn-1913-9071/land-policies-land-based-development-programs-and

[38] Lindberg, J., Herath, D., 2014. Land and grievances in post-conflict Sri Lanka: exploring the role of corruption complaints. Third World Quarterly 35, 888–904.

[39] World Bank Group, 2017. Improving Quality of Land Administration in Sri Lanka. World Bank Group, Washington DC. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-number-127686/improving-quality-land-administration-sri-lanka

[40] Bartsch, J.D., Moore, C.W., 2015. Resolving Land Disputes: Effective Procedures & Strategies. CDR Associates, Ministry of Justice, Asia Foundation. https://landportal.org/library/resources/resolving-land-disputes

[41] FAO, 2020. Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles [WWW Document]. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. URL http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[42] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

De Saram, F.J. & G., 2008. Issues in Ownership of Real Estate: Sri Lanka. F.J. & G. De Saram, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issues-ownership-real-estate-sri-lanka

[43] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

Rupesinghe, P.W., 2008. Inheritance Rights of Children in Sri Lanka. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/inheritance-rights-children-sri-lanka

[44] FAO, 2020. Gender and Land Rights Database Country Profiles [WWW Document]. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. URL http://www.fao.org/gender-landrights-database/country-profiles/en/

[45] Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2020. BTI 2020 Country Report Sri Lanka. Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. https://landportal.org/library/resources/report-part-bertelsmann-stiftung%E2%80%99s-transformation-index-bti-2020/bti-2020-country

World Bank, 2020. World Bank Open Data [WWW Document]. The World Bank: Working for a world free of poverty. URL https://data.worldbank.org/

[46] De Saram, F.J. & G., 2008. Issues in Ownership of Real Estate: Sri Lanka. F.J. & G. De Saram, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issues-ownership-real-estate-sri-lanka

[47] Dissanayake, D., Perera, B., 2015. State Lands and Land Laws: A Hand Book. Law & Society Trust, Colombo. https://landportal.org/library/resources/state-lands-and-land-laws-hand-book

[48] Land Watch Asia, 2012. Land Ownership and the Journey to Self-Determination: Sri Lanka Country Paper. Land Watch Asia. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-ownership-and-journey-self-determination

[49] Yusoff, M.A., Sarjoon, A., Awang, A., Hamdi, I.H., 2015. Land Policies, Land-based Development Programs and the Question of Minority Rights in Eastern Sri Lanka. Journal of Sustainable Development 8, 223–233. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-1913-9063-e-issn-1913-9071/land-policies-land-based-development-programs-and

[50] Bartsch, J.D., Moore, C.W., 2015. Resolving Land Disputes: Effective Procedures & Strategies. CDR Associates, Ministry of Justice, Asia Foundation. https://landportal.org/library/resources/resolving-land-disputes

[51] Bradley, A., Weerahewa, J., Vickers, B., Palmer, D., Aggarawal, S., 2016. Land Tenure Considerations in Sri Lanka’s Proposed National REDD+ Strategy - UN-REDD Programme Collaborative Online Workspace. Sri Lanka UN-REDD Programme, Battaramulla. https://landportal.org/library/resources/land-tenure-considerations-sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-strategy

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