Gabon - Context and Land Governance

^{Libreville beach,Gabon photo by Brian Gratwicke  (CC BY-SA 2.0)}

The vast majority (90%) of this population lives in urban areas² . Gabon is also distinguished by its abundant forest cover, the second highest proportion in the world after Suriname. Gabon's forests are home to a rich biodiversity (including 50% of Africa's forest elephant population) and sequester large amounts of carbon, averaging 111 million tons of CO₂ equivalent per year , more than the country emits³ .

Gabon has more than 50 ethno-cultural groups, including some communities that traditionally live by hunting and gathering in large forest areas. The land rights of the Baka, Babongo, Bakoya, Baghame, Barimba, Akoula and Akwoa groups are particularly precarious. Indeed, their land tenure is not recognized by the state, for whom the right of ownership is materialized by a land title. As the lands of these indigenous communities are not "visibly occupied" and cultivated, the State considers them to be vacant lands or lands declared "without master". In the absence of legal protection, the ancestral forests of indigenous peoples have been gradually eroded, leading them to settle down and turn to agriculture⁴ . It is estimated that the indigenous population of Gabon is 16,000 in 2017⁵ .  

Gabon's economy is primarily based on the exploitation of natural resources. Gabon is the fifth largest oil producer in sub-Saharan Africa and this product accounts for 80% of exports⁶ . The sedimentary basin covers 247,000 km ,2  , 70% of which is offshore and 30% on land⁷ . The country is also the second largest producer of manganese in the world after South Africa⁸ . Gabon was the most prosperous country in Africa in 2022 and has a high human development index. This wealth is explained by the presence of these natural resources, but also by efforts to diversify the economy and process wood locally⁹ .
Despite its potential in terms of climatic conditions, availability of arable land and water resources, Gabon's agriculture has over time become one of the main weak links in the economy. The development of extractive industries in the wake of independence has led to a significant decline in agricultural production. According to government data, in 1960 agriculture (excluding fishing and forestry) accounted for 32% of Gabon's gross domestic product (GDP), but this percentage has continually fallen to 2.9% of GDP in 2014. Only one-tenth of the agricultural land (covering a total of 5.2 million hectares) is cultivated, forcing the country to import 80% of its food¹⁰ . Family farms average between 1 and 1.5 hectares. 

Historical context

Gabon's post-colonial history is marked by the longevity of the regime in power. Upon assuming the presidency in 1967, Omar Bongo established a one-party regime. Although a multiparty democratic system was introduced in 1991, Omar Bongo ruled the country for 41 years. For two decades after independence, oil provided a major boost to the economy, although the oil revenues did not benefit the entire population¹¹ . In 2009, Omar Bongo's son, Ali Bongo Ondimba, won the presidential election in August 2009. He currently leads the country. 

To offset the decline in oil production and market fluctuations, the government has been trying to diversify the economy since 2009 with the Emerging Gabon Strategic Plan (PSGE). Through this plan, the State wishes to develop sustainable forest management and the development of agricultural potential to guarantee food security. To achieve this, the government has undertaken to simplify access to property titles and to manage territorial development more rationally¹² . The government aims to promote the industrial exploitation of wood while maintaining a forest cover of over 85%. Gabon hopes to achieve this goal through reduced impact logging¹³ .

In 2021, Gabon became the first African country to be financially compensated for its ability to reduce CO2 emissions from deforestation and forest degradation under the REDD+ mechanism. The country received a payment of $17 million from Norway, out of a total envelope of $150 million¹⁴ . 

Land legislation and regulations

Gabon does not have a land tenure policy as such, but a series of laws that were essentially adopted shortly after the country's independence in 1960 and largely inspired by colonial legislation. These laws have gradually been clarified or amended through multiple ordinances and decrees, but the legislative basis for land tenure has not been substantially reformed since then.

Faced with a land tenure system that does not provide adequate responses to contemporary issues related to the governance of land and the country's food sovereignty, the Gabonese government, with the support of its technical and financial partners, has undertaken a series of actions since December 2011 to promote responsible land management. Ordinance No. 5/2012 of February 13, 2012 establishing the land tenure system, ratified by Law No. 3/2012 of August 13, 2012, thus aims to improve the ease and speed of processing land registration applications¹⁵ . 

The Emerging Gabon Strategic Plan (PSGE) has also addressed some aspects of land tenure in its urban planning and housing component. Several processes and policy documents also make progress in taking land into account, such as the National Food Security Policy: Vision and Implementation 2017-2025, which seeks to facilitate secure access to land for family farms and women. The National Plan for Agricultural Investment and Food and Nutritional Security 2017-2022 (PNIASAN Updated) has similar objectives.

It is in this context that the government created the National Land Allocation Commission in 2017 to take inventory of land allocations in the national territory and improve land governance¹⁶ . Although there is a first version of this national land allocation plan, the work of the Commission has still not been publicly disseminated until now. 

Similarly, the process of operationalizing the Voluntary Guidelines for Responsible Governance of Land, Fisheries and Forest Tenure in the context of national food security led to the production of an analysis report of the legal framework related to Gabonese land tenure. The said report was presented, amended and validated during a workshop held in Libreville from 24 to 26 October 2018. This meeting allowed the sixty or so participants who took part to recommend the formulation of a framework law to govern the Gabonese land. However, this recommendation has not been implemented due to lack of resources and political will. 

There are other challenges to securing land in Gabon. The land rights of small-scale farmers are unclear, whether under customary law or under state law. In general, land-related laws, such as the Agricultural Development Law, remain poorly known and enforced due to a lack of decrees. In addition, the country has a multiplicity of institutional actors in land matters, but the legal and regulatory provisions do not clearly define their respective responsibilities in order to avoid interference, allow for an exchange of information and optimize the results of their actions. 

The legal framework is better developed for the forestry sector and reflects a certain dynamism on the part of the country to preserve its resources. Gabon adopted its first forestry policy in 1996 to increase the sector's contribution to economic and social development. This policy was followed by the promulgation in 2001 of Law No.o 016-01 on the Forestry Code in the Gabonese Republic to improve the sustainability of forestry practices. Among other things, this law requires forest concessions to institute harvesting rotations of 20 to 30 years, employ low-impact harvesting techniques, and develop 30-year management plans. The law also required that by 2009, 75% of logs would be processed in Gabon before export for greater profit¹⁷ . 

In 2007, the government also promulgated Law No. 03/2007 on national parks to implement the creation of 13 parks announced in 2002. These parks cover 3 million hectares, or 11% of the territory. The introduction of the law led to the cancellation of 1.3 million hectares of forest concessions. In 2009, Gabon followed up with a ban on the export of unprocessed logs to meet the target set by Law No.o 016-01. 

For its part, the Sustainable Development Law adopted in 2014 frames the implementation of the Plan Gabon Émergent. This law requires companies to compensate for damage to forests or community lands by purchasing "sustainable development credits" as part of a national credit trading market¹⁸ . The Gabonese government is also revising the forestry code. 

Land tenure classifications

The Gabonese territory is formally made up of two parts: the national domain and the lands appropriated by private individuals. However, the law assimilates the "nation" to the State. Indeed, the national domain is made up of "all movable and immovable property and rights belonging to the State. The domain of the State is subdivided into private and public domains. All unregistered land belongs to the private domain of the State¹⁹ . 

According to this logic, the only land rights available to the population are those granted by the State. The domain of private individuals consists of land detached from the public domain through registration, on condition that it is developed. Registration consists of registering a property in the Land Register to grant a title of ownership. However, the land registry service responsible for demarcating plots of land for appropriation is unable to perform its functions²⁰ . More than 50,000 files are still pending, some of them for a decade, making it difficult for many Gabonese to formally acquire a plot of land²¹ . 

Under Law No. 017/2014 of January 30, 2015 regulating the mining sector in the Gabonese Republic, the state owns natural resources, including mineral substances²² . All forests are also owned by the Gabonese state, which grants forestry concessions to companies. 

Gabon's National Land Use Plan (NLUP) has established six land categories based on use (but not legal status):

1. Forest concessions are production areas where "industrial permits for selective timber harvesting" are granted.
2. Protected areas include national parks, strict nature reserves, presidential reserves, wildlife reserves, hunting estates, managed wildlife areas, arboreta, and cultural/historical complexes.
3. Rural areas are areas within a 3 km radius of villages, excluding the other five land uses.
4. The agricultural zones consist of industrial agricultural concessions, ranches, and fallow areas within forestry concessions.
5. Community forests are forests "allocated to a village community for sustainable activities under a management plan. 
6. Conservation fallow areas are located within the boundaries of agricultural and forestry concessions.
Any land that does not fall into one of these six categories is considered unallocated land.

^{Plateaux Batéké in Gabon, photography by jbdodane (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

Land Use Trends

The Gabonese forest is the second largest dense rainforest in the world after the Amazon basin. Historically, two factors explain Gabon's underpopulation and abundance of forests. The first is the slave trade, which emptied the Gabonese coast of its inhabitants between about 1500 and 1850. Subsequently, the colonial policy of "regrouping" led to the forced relocation of rural populations from their villages to settle near major road and river transport routes. Both phenomena allowed the forest to regrow where it had been destroyed²³ .

Forest cover in Gabon has remained relatively intact over the years. Gabon's forest has grown from 23.76 million hectares in 1990 to 23.53 million in 2020, representing a net loss of only 231,020 hectares in 30 years. Currently, Gabon's forest covers 88% of the national territory, with protected areas totaling 3.45 million hectares²⁴ .

The low rate of deforestation is due to a number of factors, including the country's economic dependence on oil rather than industrial agriculture and intensive logging²⁵ . Family farming also occupies little space given the low population. The implementation of environmental measures in the last two decades has also helped limit deforestation. 

However, the rate of forest deforestation is increasing. The annual deforestation rate in Gabon has been less than 0.05% since the 1990s, while it is currently estimated at 0.1%²⁶ . Net annual losses in forest area have indeed been higher since 2010 (11,880 hectares per year on average). The decrease in forest size is attributed to "agro-industry, logging and mining activities, the construction of large infrastructures such as hydroelectric dams, roads, etc., as well as the conversion of forest to fallow and grassland in rural areas"²⁷ .

The illegal exploitation and export of wood, particularly kevazingo, represents a major land issue. In 2019, illegal logging accounted for almost 40% of the forestry industry, which is worth 800 million²⁸ . Mining and commercial hunting activities also pose a threat to forest wildlife. 

Investments and land acquisitions

Despite the small population, there is little available land in Gabon. Only 12% of the land is not used for any agricultural, forestry, petroleum, or mining activity, while 40% is even used for two or more purposes²⁹ . Gabon has one of the highest percentages of land allocated to forestry and agricultural investors in the world³⁰ .
  

^{Land Categories in 2019 in Gabon, Map by National Climate Council (2021)} 

Although Gabon's forests remain well preserved overall, they are the object of intense covetousness. In 2020, approximately 15.5 million hectares were being exploited by some 40 logging companies³¹ , representing 56% of the national territory. Asian companies have entered the industry since the 2000s and are buying up the assets of the previously dominant European (mainly French) concessionaires³² . Currently, Chinese companies control three-quarters of the concessioned forest area³³ .

The Singaporean multinational Olam has a special place in Gabon's economic and land landscape. Initially a forestry concessionaire, Olam became the operator of the N'Kok Special Economic Zone (SEZ) at the request of the government. The government granted Olam a concession of two million hectares and instructed it to allocate plots to industrialists to supply their wood processing plants located in the SEZ. However, several companies did not survive the crisis linked to the log export ban and abandoned their forest concessions. Olam then gradually recovered these concessions, and is currently exploiting more than one million hectares of forest³⁴ .  

Since the 2000s, industrial agriculture, including palm oil and rubber plantations as well as cattle ranches, has also been expanding in Gabon under government impetus. Gabon has only a handful of agribusinesses (e.g., Olam, SIAT, SUCAF, Grande Mayumba), but they control large areas of land. The cumulative size of agricultural concessions has increased by 370% since 2008, from 112,000 to 526,191 hectares³⁵ . Olam alone has 144,000 hectares of oil palm plantations under public-private partnership, in addition to its forestry concession³⁶ .

Community land rights

In Gabon, the state is the "exclusive manager of land"³⁷ . In legal terms, Gabon does not recognize the legitimacy of customary land rights, which are precarious and non-transferable. The state recognizes the validity of customary rights only indirectly, through the right of populations to oppose the transfer of their land and the compensation received in the event of expropriation for mining activities. 

The only mechanism for formalizing customary land rights is the registration of unappropriated land³⁸ . Prior to the introduction of the Emerging Gabon Strategic Plan, it took 134 steps and at least 5 years to obtain a land title³⁹ . As a result, the majority of the population does not hold land titles, technically living in land illegality. Many logging, mining and agro-industrial licenses also encroach on community lands⁴⁰ . Sometimes hundreds of villages are located within the boundaries of logging concessions⁴¹ . 

According to several analysts, the difficulties of smallholders in securing land are an obstacle to agricultural production. Furthermore, the Gabonese government has focused its recent policies primarily on the development of agribusiness, although some efforts are being made to revive the coffee and cocoa subsidiaries through support to family farms⁴² . The government also designed the Gabonese Agricultural Achievements and Initiatives of Committed Nationals (GRAINE) project in 2014 to decrease the country's dependence on food imports and increase the share of agricultural GDP. To do this, GRAINE aims to create industrial agricultural cooperatives and distribute plots to farmers⁴³ . However, local populations have denounced the project, arguing that it contributes to land grabbing and deprives them of access to water⁴⁴ .

In this context, community forestry is the main means for people to assert their customary land rights. Associations whose applications are approved are entrusted with the management of forests located in the rural forest estate⁴⁵ . However, communities can only exercise use rights without owning the forests, which are limited in size to 5,000 hectares. Due to high registration costs, all community forests in Gabon have so far been established through external funding⁴⁶ . In addition, communities often contract out the exploitation of their forests to third parties for a fee⁴⁷ . The Gabonese government recently approved the creation of 28 new community forests, bringing the total to 68. As of 2017, the 40 existing community forests covered nearly 167,000 hectares in five provinces⁴⁸ .
 

Women's land rights

This section is based largely on a literature search conducted at our request by Renee Giovarelli of Resource Equity.

Existing data on women's land rights in Gabon remain limited. According to available information, women contribute more than 60% of national food production and are primarily responsible for gathering non-timber forest products. Women generally practice subsistence agriculture with the possibility of commercialization to support their families. 

Until recently, Gabon's various legal texts and policy strategies took little account of the specific difficulties faced by women, despite their contribution to food security and the income of the family unit. However, some progress has been made. For example, although the 2021 Constitution does not explicitly mention women, Article 1 states that "every person, whether alone or in community, has the right to property" without gender discrimination⁴⁹ . 

Law n°004/2021 of September 15, 2021 also modifies certain provisions of the former Civil Code to "guarantee the civil equality of spouses in marriage". Whereas article 253 of the previous law established the husband as head of the family, the new code provides that "the family is managed jointly by the spouses in the interest of the household and the children". In terms of property, the new Civil Code also provides in Article 335 that "the spouses shall jointly administer the common property" whereas previously the man was the sole administrator. Article 336 also specifies that the spouses may not dispose of immovables by way of payment without the consent of the other spouse⁵⁰ . 

The state is also trying to promote women's access to land through various policies, including the National Food Security Policy: Vision and Implementation 2017 -2025 and the National Agricultural Investment and Food and Nutritional Security Plan 2017-2022 (PNIASAN Updated)⁵¹ . 

While laudable, these measures remain insufficient to ensure women's access to land. Indeed, according to a 2012 survey, 80% of women report not owning land, 9% own land individually and 11% are in joint ownership with their spouse or a family member⁵² . All indications are that the situation has not significantly improved in the last decade. 

Land tenure in urban areas

Gabon's population is highly concentrated in urban areas. Stimulated by the oil boom, Gabon's capital city grew rapidly from the 1970s onwards. However, the urban expansion was carried out in a poorly organized manner, encroaching on the rural areas adjacent to the city and resulting in the formation of "under-integrated neighborhoods. Decentralization efforts since the 1990s have not been able to control the sprawl of the city⁵³ . Today, 59% of the population lives in the political capital, Libreville, and the economic capital, Port-Gentil⁵⁴ . 

In a context of insufficient developed land and spontaneous occupation of the urban territory, the Gabonese government developed a Housing Sector Plan and created a new organization in 2011, the National Agency for Urban Planning, Topographic Works and Land Registry (ANUTTC). Faced with the multiplicity of institutions responsible for land tenure, the goal was to offer the user a single contact with whom the application for land allocation is filed and the land title is withdrawn. 

^{Aerial view of Libreville, Gabon, photography by kool_skatkat (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)}

The State has also updated its legislative corpus, including Law n°007/2012 ratifying Ordinance n°000006/PR/2012 of 13 February 2012 laying down the general rules relating to urban planning in the Gabonese Republic and Decree n°083/PR/MHUL of 2 April 2010 laying down the terms and conditions for issuing subdivision permits⁵⁵ . Organizational shortcomings, however, limit ANUTTC's ability to fulfill its missions in terms of sustainable urban development⁵⁶ .

Land innovations

In 2018, President Ali Bongo decreed that forest concessions must obtain Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification starting in 2022⁵⁷ . Forests certified in this way are managed to protect biodiversity while contributing to the quality of life of local populations⁵⁸ .
 

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1963: The government adopts Law n°14/63 of May 8, 1963 fixing the composition of the State's domain and the rules that determine its management and alienation.

1970s-  1990s: The oil industry overtakes logging to form the basis of the economy.

1996- Gabon adopts its first forestry policy.

2001- The government adopts a forestry code.

2007- Thirteen national parks covering 3 million hectares were created. 

2008- Decree No. 1028 of December 1, 2008 sets the conditions for the creation of community forests.

2009- The government launches the Emerging Gabon Strategic Plan (PSGE) to reduce the economy's dependence on the oil sector.

2014 - Gabon adopts Sustainable Development Law.

2015 - The State promulgates Law No. 017/2014 of January 30, 2015 regulating the mining sector in the Gabonese Republic.

2018 - Gabon requires all forest concessions to be FSC certified by 2022.

2021 -The country receives its first REDD++ payment for the contribution of its forests to carbon absorption.  

Where to go next?

The author's suggestions for further reading

I recommend a scientific article by Jean-Marie Betsch to understand how the unique relationship that hunter-gatherer societies have with the forest influences their agricultural land use. Indeed, while forest peoples have largely converted to slash-and-burn agriculture, they nevertheless integrate their ancestral knowledge into their practices to allow for better regeneration of the forest after the fields are abandoned.
If you are interested in the issue of large-scale land acquisitions, the article co-authored by Danielle D. Legault and Logan Cochrane provides an interesting overview of this contemporary issue. 

References

[1] World Bank. 2021. "Country profile: Gabon," World Development Indicators. URL: https://databank.worldbank.org/views/reports/reportwidget.aspx?Report_Name=CountryProfile&Id=b450fd57&tbar=y&dd=y&inf=n&zm=n&country=GAB.

[2] https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=GA

[3] National Climate Council. 2021. Gabon's Proposed National REDD+ Forest Reference Level. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/gabon%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-forest-reference-level.

[4] https://gitpa.org/Peuple%20GITPA%20500/GITPA%20500-9WEBDOCGABONFONCIER.htm

[5] Billé, Stéphane. 2017. "Gabon's pygmy population estimated at nearly 16,000 souls". Le Nouveau Gabon. 13 May. URL: https://www.lenouveaugabon.com/social/1305-11906-la-population-pygmee-du-gabon-est-estimee-a-pres-de-16-000-ames.

[6] https://www.banquemondiale.org/fr/country/gabon/overview#1

[7] The Treasury's general management. 2020. The oil sector in Gabon. URL: https://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/Pays/GA/le-secteur-petrolier-au-gabon.

[8] Ovono Edzang, Noël. 2019. National assessment of land governance for Gabon's National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101636.

[9] Zouari, Ilyes. 2022. "Gabon consolidates its status as the richest country in Africa, ahead of Botswana (excluding very small countries)." Financial Afrik, October 12. URL: https://www.financialafrik.com/2022/10/12/le-gabon-consolide-son-statut-de-pays-le-plus-riche-dafrique-devant-le-botswana-hors-tres-petits-pays/.

[10] Ovono Edzang, Noël. 2019. National assessment of land governance for Gabon's National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101636.

[11] Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2020. BTI 2020 Country Report - Gabon. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung. URL: https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2029564/country_report_2020_GAB.pdf.

[12] Gabonese Republic. 2012. Gabon Emergent Strategic Plan. URL: https://www.cafi.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/Gabon_2015_SM%20A_PlanStrategiqueGabonEmergent.pdf.

[13] Prentice, Alessandra. 2021. "Gabon gambles on sustainable logging to prevent deforestation". Reuters, November 2. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2022/03/gabon-gambles-sustainable-logging-prevent-deforestation.

[14] Tan, Jim. 2021. "Gabon becomes first African country to get paid for protecting its forests". Mongabay, July 20. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2022/04/gabon-becomes-first-african-country-get-paid-protecting-its-forests. 

[15] Ovono Edzang, Noël. 2019. National assessment of land governance for Gabon's National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101636.

[16] Ovono Edzang, Noël. 2019. National assessment of land governance for Gabon's National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101636.

[17] Gabonese Republic. 2001. Law No. 16/2001 of December 31, 2001 on the Forestry Code in the Gabonese Republic. URL: https://www.clientearth.fr/media/0rjbadal/2001-12-31-loi-n162001-du-31122001-portant-code-forestier-en-republique-gabonaise-ext-fr.pdf.

[18] National Climate Council. 2021. Gabon's Proposed National REDD+ Forest Reference Level. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/gabon%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-forest-reference-level.

[19] Gabonese Republic. 1963. This document is the result of a study by the National Commission for the Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources of the Republic of Gabon (CCPRES). URL: https://www.clientearth.fr/media/xe4n5kl0/1963-05-08-loi-n1463-du-08051963-fixant-la-composition-du-domaine-de-letat-et-les-regles-qui-en-determinent-les-modes-de-gestion-et-dalienation-ext-fr.pdf.

[20] Comby, Joseph. 1995. Which cadastre for what purpose? The case of Gabon. URL: http://www.comby-foncier.com/cadastre_Gabon.pdf.

[21] In 2022, 6,000 cases were processed, although this was an improvement over previous years. See Dzonteu, Désiré-Clitandre. 2023. "ANUTTC: More than 6,000 files completed in 2022 and a budget of $8.643 billion in 2023. "GabonReview, January 22. https://www.gabonreview.com/anuttc-plus-de-6000-dossiers-boucles-en-2022-et-un-budget-de-8643-milliards-en-2023/.

[22] Gabonese Republic. 2019. Law No. 017/2014 of January 30, 2015, regulating the mining sector in the Gabonese Republic. URL: https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/gab196942.pdf.

[23] National Climate Council. 2022. Gabon's National REDD+ Strategy. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://redd.unfccc.int/files/gabon_national_reddplus_strategy.pdf. 

[24] Zamba, Ariskn, Pemphile Mboulou, and Simplice Nteme. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 - Gabon Report. Rome: FAO. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101632.

[25] Cutting is done selectively in Gabon (between 1 and 3 trees/ha once every 20 to 30 years). National Climate Council. 2021. Gabon's Proposed National REDD+ Forest Reference Level. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/gabon%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-forest-reference-level. 

[26] National Climate Council. 2021. Gabon's Proposed National REDD+ Forest Reference Level. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/gabon%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-forest-reference-level.

[27] Zamba, Ariskn, Pemphile Mboulou, and Simplice Nteme. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 - Gabon Report. Rome: FAO. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101632.

[28] Prentice, Alessandra. 2021. "Gabon gambles on sustainable logging to prevent deforestation". Reuters, November 2. URL: https://landportal.org/news/2022/03/gabon-gambles-sustainable-logging-prevent-deforestation.

[29] Moussavou, Ghislain, and J. Emmanuel Mambela. 2016. "Plan National d'Affectation du Territoire Gabon: Situation of affected lands."  Congo Basin Forest Partnerships, 26th Meeting of the Parties, November 21-26, Kigali, Rwanda. URL: https://docplayer.fr/33187358-Plan-national-d-affectation-du-territoire-gabon-situation-des-terres-affectees.html.

[30] Legault, Danielle D. and Logan Cochrane. 2021. "Forests to the Foreigners: Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Gabon." Land 10 (4): 420. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/forests-foreigners.

[31] National Climate Council. 2021. Gabon's Proposed National REDD+ Forest Reference Level. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/gabon%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-forest-reference-level.

[32] Karsenty, Alain. 2020. "Geopolitics of Central African forests." Herodotus 179 (4): 108-29. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101673.

[33] Legault, Danielle D. and Logan Cochrane. 2021. "Forests to the Foreigners: Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Gabon." Land 10 (4): 420. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/forests-foreigners.

[34] Karsenty, Alain. 2020. "Geopolitics of Central African forests." Herodotus 179 (4): 108-29. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101673.

[35] Legault, Danielle D. and Logan Cochrane. 2021. "Forests to the Foreigners: Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Gabon." Land 10 (4): 420. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/forests-foreigners. 

[36] National Climate Council. 2021. Gabon's Proposed National REDD+ Forest Reference Level. Gabonese Republic. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/gabon%E2%80%99s-proposed-national-redd-forest-reference-level.
Karsenty, Alain. 2020. "Geopolitics of Central African forests." Herodotus 179 (4): 108-29. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101673.

[37] Ministry of health, social welfare and national solidarity. 2017. General report on the situation of Gabonese women. Republic of Gabon; United Nations Population Fund. URL: https://gabon.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Rapport%20décennie%20de%20la%20femme-version%20finale%201.pdf.

[38] Ovono Edzang, Noël. 2019. National assessment of land governance for Gabon's National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101636.

[39] Gabonese Republic. 2012. Gabon Emergent Strategic Plan. URL: https://www.cafi.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/Gabon_2015_SM%20A_PlanStrategiqueGabonEmergent.pdf

[40] Djinang, Martial, Benjamin Ichou, and Nathalie Faure. 2018. Analysis of the legal framework for community forests in Gabon. ClientEarth.URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/analyse-du-cadre-juridique-relatif-aux-for%C3%AAts-communautaires-au-gabon.

[41] Moussavou, Ghislain, and J. Emmanuel Mambela. 2016. "Plan National d'Affectation du Territoire Gabon: Situation of affected lands." Congo Basin Forest Partnerships, 26th Meeting of the Parties, November 21-26, Kigali, Rwanda. URL: https://docplayer.fr/33187358-Plan-national-d-affectation-du-territoire-gabon-situation-des-terres-affectees.html.

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[44] RADD, SEFE, YETHIO, SYNAPARCAM, GRAIN and WRM. 2017. GRAIN of despair: communities lose land and water sources in OLAM agribusiness in Gabon. 11 July. URL: https://grain.org/e/5756.

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[46] Legault, Danielle D. and Logan Cochrane. 2021. "Forests to the Foreigners: Large-Scale Land Acquisitions in Gabon." Land 10 (4): 420. URL: https://landportal.org/library/resources/forests-foreigners.

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[55] Ministry of health, social welfare and national solidarity. 2017. General report on the situation of Gabonese women. Republic of Gabon; United Nations Population Fund. URL: https://gn.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Rapport%20décennie%20de%20la%20femme-version%20finale%201.pdf.

[56] Ovonaboo Edzang, Noël. 2019. National assessment of land governance for Gabon's National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). URL: https://landportal.org/node/101636.

[57] Karsenty, Alain. 2020. "Geopolitics of Central African forests." Herodotus 179 (4): 108-29. URL: https://landportal.org/node/101673.

[58] https://ca.fsc.org/ca-fr/quest-ce-que-le-fsc/forets-certifiees-fsc.