Land use in traditional village clustering areas often exhibits slight dynamic changes; however, significant hidden ecological hazards may be present in local settlements. There is still a lack of dynamic ecological risk assessments for the corresponding classification-based prevention strategies and landscape ecosystem attributes’ enhancement. Based on the land-use changes, this study integrated the ecosystem structure and function to explore the characteristics of the landscape ecological risk in traditional village clustering areas.

Deforestation and forest degradation mostly caused by human interventions affect the capacity of the forest ecosystem to provide ecosystem services and livelihood benefits. Forest and landscape restoration (FLR) is an emerging concept that focuses on the improvement of the ecosystem as well as the livelihood of the people at the landscape level. Nepal has successfully recovered degraded forest land mainly from the hilly region through forest restoration initiatives, especially community-based forestry. However, the Tarai region is still experiencing deforestation and forest degradation.

The use of anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) as a soil conditioner could help prevent soil loss by water. In this study, we determined the effective granular PAM rate that best reduces runoff and soil loss from Oxisols. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the selected PAM rate was tested by applying it in a mixture with gypsum (G) or lime (L).