Kazakhstan - Context and Land Governance

^{Kazakhstan, photo by Ewan McIntosh, Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC 2.0)}

Kazakhstan gained independence on December 16, 1991. It is perceived by many as an authoritarian state with a questionable human rights record, albeit more progressive than many neighbouring Central Asian countries, for example, in its promotion of private property and women’s rights. Recent political history is dominated by the First President Nursultan Nazarbayev. A former high-level Soviet official, Nazarbayev was first elected president in 1991. He resigned in 2019 but initially maintained strong control as head of the national Security Council and chair of the ruling Nur-Otan party, seemingly with influence over his hand-picked successor, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev. In early 2022, street protests over fuel prices quickly morphed into the largest protests since Independence, airing frustrations against corruption and inequality. Tokayev replaced Nazarbayev as head of the Security Council, seemingly attempting to distance himself from the past and exert authority as a leader for the future.

Economically, Kazakhstan has achieved the most comprehensive transition of post-Soviet Central Asian states from a planned to a market economy, fuelled by large reserves in oil, gas, and minerals such as uranium². This has helped bring greater wealth than its neighbours, reaching an upper-middle-income status with a GDP per capita of US$9,122 (current US$ - 2020 figure)³. Despite dependence on oil, the country is attempting to diversify its economy, through developing the financial and agricultural sectors.

Land legislation and regulations

Key legislation around the time of independence lays the groundwork for private property, without yet including land. The national Constitution was enacted in 1995, and Article 26 allows for private property that is protected under law and may be inherited. Article 6 states that land and natural resources are owned by the state, although private ownership is possible should it be specified through other legislation. This text is repeated in Article 193 of the Civil Code from 1994. On April 22, 2022 the President Tokayev proposed to amend Article 6 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan as follows: “The land and its subsoil, water, flora and fauna, and other natural resources shall be owned by the people. The state shall exercise the ownership right on behalf of the people”⁴. 

The main legislative guide on land ownership and use in Kazakhstan is the Land Code. The 1990 Land Code only allows land use, with no means for private ownership⁵. Following independence, the 1995 Land Code broke up state farms and allowed ownership of land shares, although these shares do not specify demarcated plots of land⁶. The owners of shares could use the shares to receive a land allocation and set up a family farm, contribute them towards a larger agricultural enterprise, or sub-lease them. The 1995 Land Code also allowed farmers to rent agricultural land from the state.

^{Grain fields near Kokshetau, photo by Breshuk, public domain}

The significant legislative shift took place with the 2003 Land Code, which extended private individual ownership rights to nearly all types of land⁷. The private ownership of agricultural land was permitted for the first time. However, the sub-leasing of land shares was made illegal. Only private plots could be rented out by owners, but few rural residents possess the capital to purchase the land outright, and so such plots reached a mere 1.4% of agricultural land by 2019⁸.

The Land Code grants local executive government (akimat) the authority over land rights, including the right to eminent domain. There are different categories of land rights, namely for agricultural, residential, non-agricultural purposes (including industry, transport, communications, and defence), forest, water resources, and reserve (under a land fund)⁹. Land can be seized by district or city officials should usage not conform to its designated category. Use transfer is possible under formal recognition.

The 2011 Law on State Property offers guidelines on how property should be defined and registered. It governs state appropriation of land and the necessary compensation (see Land Conflicts section for further information on this). Recent reforms have looked to solidify protection of private property rights, while also streamlining mechanisms for land acquisition¹⁰. The 2017 Law on Pastoralism governs the management of pastures, allowing district-level pasture use planning, which regulates access while looking to prevent land degradation¹¹.

In 2021, President Tokayev signed "The Law on Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Development of Land Relations". Changes introduced include: re-introducing the right for Kazakhstani citizens and legal entities to lease agricultural land for up to 49 years, with the option for extension; the task to make public digital information on agricultural land plots through the Automated Information System of the State Land Cadastre (AIS SLC), becoming available on January 1, 2022; and an extension of the moratorium to offer private ownership on agricultural land until December 31, 2026¹².

In April 2022, President Tokayev proposed to amend Article 6 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan by including the provision that the land, and other natural resources shall be owned by the people. The referendum will be held in Kazakhstan in June to introduce this and other amendments to the Constitution. 

Land tenure classifications

Much land in Kazakhstan remains under state ownership, from which the public may gain access through leaseholds. For example, in rural Kazakhstan, the land can now be held under long-term leases for 49 years. These rights are heritable but not alienable. When the term expires, the existing lessee has the first right of renewal. Following the 1995 Decree of the President on Land, private ownership is permitted under law, initially of only household plots, but later (following the 2003 Land Code) of agricultural land. Nevertheless, private land is much more common in urban areas, where rising values encourage a land market. It is possible to transfer land from state to private ownership, but this requires official permission and a payment of the cadastral value.

All land rights must be registered with the Ministry of Justice through a district-level administration to receive formal recognition through a land certificate. Where land use may change, such as from agricultural to residential land use in peri-urban areas, a formal transfer process must take place for it to be registered.

During its period as part of the Soviet Union, ethnic Kazakhs suffered from significant in-migration to the Republic and forced collectivisation, which led to severe famine and the displacement of millions¹³. As with other post-Soviet states, there has been significant agricultural reform, linking to tenure regimes, that has attempted to stimulate increased productivity. This initially involved restructuring collective and state farms into smaller corporate farms and with individual use rights through land shares. For most people, the best means to use the shares productively was to rent them out to an enterprise¹⁴. By 2007, when private agricultural land ownership was allowed, individual farms made up 48% of agricultural land and corporate farm enterprises 50%. Although private ownership of agricultural land is possible, leaseholds predominate¹⁵.

Historically, animal husbandry has been the backbone of the Kazakh economy, and pastoralism has been informed by different phases of tenure. Up to 1800, traditional pastoralism took place in the area now known as Kazakhstan, using land as a common property resource¹⁶. Russian colonisation after 1800 resulted in pastoral land loss for agriculture, and a mix of Kazakh customary and Russian state tenure regimes, namely mixing common and private property. During Soviet rule, the land was brought under state control, principally through collectivisation, although migratory livestock husbandry was permitted after 1941. Following independence and the end of state farms, a hybrid tenure form has returned, seeing both unregulated areas of open access and farms that are private property. Reforms to lease back land to the people did not fit the need for large spaces by herders (aproblem also afflicting options to buy pastures), who instead gained informal open access to state land¹⁷. It is also possible for herders to receive leases of Forest Department land for seasonal summer use. The 2017 Law on Pastures fails to specify land tenure mechanisms to support practices, instead of following the 2003 Land Code¹⁸.

^{Pasture and cattle in the mountains near Almaty, Kazakhstan, photo by Global Environment Facility, Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)}

Land use trends

With a low population density, much of Kazakhstan’s vast landscape remains available as pasture, with permanent pasture taking up 68% of natural land in 2019¹⁹. Since the 1950s, there was a rapid conversion of the natural steppe, fallow lands, and forests for agricultural and industrial uses²⁰. This ties in with Soviet-era agricultural policy, where Kazakhstan specialised in grain production through large state farms (sovkhozy)²¹. Arable land has since shrunk, by 2019 occupying 11% of the country, the main crops being wheat, barley, and cotton. Following de-collectivisation, and unlike other Central Asian post-Soviet states, family farms (found more in the south) take up a smaller proportion of agricultural land compared to corporate farm enterprises, which predominate in the north²². The conversion of land to farming has placed pressure on the remaining pasturelands, leading to overuse and degradation. Animal husbandry in Kazakhstan focuses on sheep, chickens, and cattle.

There are few forests in Kazakhstan, taking up just over 1% of national land. However, there is a rich source of metals and minerals, much of it untapped. The country is the world’s leading producer of uranium and home to one of the largest open coal mines during the Soviet era²³. There is also a higher level of urbanisation compared to other Central Asian countries. 57.7% of the population resided in urban areas in 2020, which compares to 52.5% for Turkmenistan (the second highest proportion in the region) and 27.5% for Tajikistan (the lowest)²⁴. The Soviet legacy leaves a series of single-industry cities.

^{Astana, Kazakhstan, pxfuel Open License}

Kazakhstan faces an acute climate risk through temperature rises which potentially could lead to increases of 5.3°C by the 2090s from a 1986-2005 baseline²⁵. This is significantly higher than the global average projected rise. Further consequences are drought, land degradation, desertification, dust storms, the melting of glaciers, and increased water scarcity. This latter outcome could affect domestic and global food security, particularly grain output.

Land investments and acquisitions

A key area of development in Kazakhstan after independence was the oil sector, and in 2000, the giant offshore Kashagan oil field was discovered in the Caspian Sea²⁶. Oil money was later used to invest in other sectors, although economic diversification is yet to fully manifest. A rapidly growing mining industry hopes to tap into a rich source of metals and minerals. There is much foreign investment into mining in Kazakhstan, principally from Russia and China, but involving several global conglomerates. Mining is governed by the 2017 Code on Subsoil and Subsoil Use, where the subsoil is recognised as the property of the state²⁷. The code permits mining through a licensing regime apart from uranium, which is under a contractual regime. Exploration licences may be acquired for a 6-year period (extendable by 5 years) for a maximum of 400km2. Should a deposit be discovered, the explorer has the right to apply for a mining licence.

Kazakhstan also became the world’s second largest site for crypto-mining (after the USA) due to its cold climate, collection of old warehouses that operate as mining sites, and cheap energy²⁸. However, the increase in sites has put considerable pressure on the national grid, leading to energy rationing for crypto factories. The 2022 protests caused blackouts and fuel price rises, leading to huge losses for the industry.

Despite private property quickly being recognised in a post-Soviet context, the emergence of a thriving land market has not been forthcoming in Kazakhstan. This is due to high transaction costs and an uncertain legal framework²⁹. As a result, there is a significant role for rental markets in the country.

Land conflicts

Transparency International Kazakhstan asserts that land authorities are among the most corrupt state institutions, and the country ranks poorly in terms of its enforcement of property rights protections³⁰. According to the Land Code, disputes must be settled in court³¹. Yet there is a lack of an independent judicial system, particularly at the district-level. It is here that local officials may monopolise their position by enforcing land rights for personal enrichment, colluding with local judges. Furthermore, concerns over revenue loss for compensation to owners of seized land might facilitate low payments upheld in local courts. This is of particular concern in high-value areas, such as in rapidly expanding cities like the commercial centre Almaty (the old capital) and the new capital Astana. Most disputes arise over seizures for state needs, thereby taking place between district officials and individual or corporate landowners. This is not helped by legal inconsistency concerning compensation levels for state appropriation of land. The 2011 Law on State Property states that compensation should match the value of the land plot as listed on its last bill of sale or purchase agreement, while the Land Code states it should match the market price.

_{Kazakhstan, Almaty view, photo by Kalpak Travel, Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)}

Recent land- and natural resource-related protests which have resulted in government concessions. This links to a legacy of environmentalism harking back to anti-nuclear demonstrations such as Nevada-Semipalatinsk International Anti-nuclear movement from the end of the 1980s (Kazakhstan was the main nuclear testing ground for the Soviet Union)³². In the 2000s, conflicts emerged (e.g., in Almaty) where squatter areas in burgeoning urban areas were refused legalisation of land plots and houses, sometimes resulting in violent evictions. In 2010, there was a large rally in Almaty, following China’s proposal to Kazakh authorities to sell or lease up to 1 million hectares of land³³.

Protests over a 2011 proposal to develop a ski resort in Ile-Aletau National Park, close to the old capital of Almaty, led to the project being banned by the president in October 2019. Perhaps most significant were the 2016 land rallies over the planned auction of agricultural land for foreign use under leaseholds increased to 10-25 years³⁴. Protests around the country resulted in state authorities 

creating a Special Land Reform Commission (LRC) to discuss land reform with civil society representatives. This resulted in a moratorium on temporary land use for agriculture purposes to foreigners and foreign legal entities. The Land Code was amended to introduce greater inclusion for civil society in land governance and the establishment of Land Commissions under local municipalities. However, following reports of their ineffectiveness and an association with corruption scandals, in 2021 it was suggested that Land Commissions should be abolished by 2023.

In May 2021, following the expiration of the moratorium, a ban on foreigners owning and leasing agricultural land was signed into law³⁵. However, new protests erupted in March and April 2021 over proposals put forward to allow foreign entities to lease forestland up to 25 years. After protests, on June 30, 2021, the President Tokayev signed "The Law on Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Development of Land Relations," which included the amendment to provide the land for individual afforestation only to citizens of Kazakhstan and Kazakhstani legal entities without foreign participation.

Women’s land rights

Cultural norms in Kazakhstan, in general, take a positive view of gender equality³⁶. Women have a strong and active position in society, although equal rights and opportunities are more likely to be experienced in urban rather than rural areas. Health and education levels are high for women, who display higher rates of enrolment at university (and are more likely to do a post-graduate study), but slightly lower rates in technical and vocational education. However, there is a disparity in income where women earn only 60% that of men³⁷.

^{Three matrons in traditional Kazakh dress take a break from creating intricate weavings to decorate yurts, photo by Ken Fairfax, Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.}

The Constitution states that everyone remains equal before the law and the court, and no-one should be subject to discrimination³⁸. This equal standing is reiterated in the Criminal Code. In 2009, the first specific gender legislation was enacted in the Law on the State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Women and Men. Kazakhstan introduced a Strategy on Gender Equality for the period 2006-2016, which was then updated to the Concept on Family and Gender Policy 2030. Key areas of focus include political representation, participation in the labour force, and violence against women. Kazakhstan also is a party to several international human rights agreements that contain gender components, most notably the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which was ratified in 1998 without reservations.

The National Commission for Women’s Affairs, Family and Demographic Policy was created in 1998, and acts as an advisory body to the president concerning national policies on gender equality. However, as of 2022, only 27.1% of members of parliament (29 out of 107 seats) and 5.6% of ministers are women, with men dominating senior positions throughout the workplace. Women make up the majority of civil service positions.

The 2009 Law on the State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Women and Men governs on a range of gender rights topics but does not specify on land and property. Past reforms have led to less women gaining access to and possession of the land. In particular, women have trouble accessing agricultural landholdings. For example, by 2016, women had only received 12.6% of shares in privatised agricultural enterprises, where they hold few management positions³⁹. A prevailing attitude that women do not possess agricultural knowledge and skills inhibits their ability to acquire agricultural land under private ownership or a leasehold. Even when successful, many plots are remote or of inferior quality. These issues accumulatively have the effect of denying women the assets necessary to apply for agricultural loans and government services.

Timeline - milestones in land governance

1991 – Independence
Independent state established in a post-Soviet era.

1995 – Constitution approved
Places land as belonging to the state but with the possibility of private ownership.

2000 – Kashagan oil field discovered
Found offshore in the Caspian Sea, this became the cornerstone of economic growth in Kazakhstan.

2003 – Land Code revision enacted
Private ownership extended to nearly all types of land, including for foreign individuals and legal entities.

2009 – Law on the State Guarantees of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities of Women and Men 
The first gender-based legislation but without specific details on land and property.

2016 – Land rallies against foreign leaseholds
Protests around the country resulted in the formation of a Special Land Reform Commission, the open publication of a state land cadastre (January 2022), and a five-year moratorium on foreign land ownership and leaseholds for agricultural land.

2017 – Law on Pastoralism
The law governs the management of pastures, allowing district-level pasture use planning, which regulates access while looking to prevent land degradation.

2021 – A new Land Reform Commission is announced and the ban on foreigners owning and leasing agricultural land is signed into law. The legislative ban follows the expiration of a five-year moratorium.

Where to go next?

The author's suggestion for further reading

A fascinating conceptual discussion of property rights using the example of Kazakhstan by Margaret Hanson (2017)⁴⁰. Vasyl Kvartiuk and Martin Petrick (2021) explore the notion that land reform has failed to stimulate an efficient allocation of agricultural land to producers, with a stagnant market undermined by a predominant interest in rentals from the state⁴¹. Eva-Marie Dubuisson (2020) provides a view of the space created for environmental activism and protests over land use planning, and their effectiveness to draw concessions from the government, despite the relatively authoritarian nature of the state⁴². Finally, for a thorough assessment of gender relations in Kazakhstan measured against a number of markers, including agriculture and access to agricultural land, readers are advised to consult a 2018 report from the Asian Development Bank (2018)⁴³ and the article by Zvi Lerman (2021) on gender gaps in Central Asia⁴⁴.

References

[1] CIA. (2022). Kazakhstan. The World Factbook.https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/#people-and-society

[2] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2022). BTI 2022 Country Report Kazakhstan. Bertelsmann Stiftung.https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2022-country-report-kazakhstan

[3] World Bank. (2022). World Bank Open Data. The World Bank: Working for a World Free of Poverty. https://data.worldbank.org/

[4] Central Asia News (2022, April 25). Tokayev stands for people’s ownership of land and land resources. Central Asia News. https://landportal.org/news/2022/05/tokayev-stands-people%E2%80%99s-ownership-land-and-land-resources

[5] Ageleuov, G. (2021, September 15). The Significance Of The Land Issue Has Not Yet Been Realized By The Authorities Of Kazakhstan—CABAR.asia. Central Asian Bureau for Analytical Reporting. https://landportal.org/library/resources/significance-land-issue-has-not-yet-been-realized-authorities-kazakhstan

[6] Kvartiuk, V., & Petrick, M. (2021). Liberal land reform in Kazakhstan? The effect on land rental and credit markets. World Development, 138, 105285.https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jworlddev2020105285/liberal-land-reform-kazakhstan-effect-land

[7] Hierman, B., & Nekbakhtshoev, N. (2014). Whose land is it? Land reform, minorities, and the titular “nation” in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Nationalities Papers, 42(2), 336–354. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101080009059922013857298/whose-land-it-land-reform-minorities-and

[8] Kvartiuk, V., & Petrick, M. (2021). Liberal land reform in Kazakhstan? The effect on land rental and credit markets. World Development, 138, 105285. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jworlddev2020105285/liberal-land-reform-kazakhstan-effect-land

[9] Hanson, M. (2017). Legalized Rent-Seeking: Eminent Domain in Kazakhstan. Cornell International Law Journal, 50(1), 15. https://landportal.org/library/resources/osfpreprint46131-75c-11c/legalized-rent-seeking-eminent-domain-kazakhstan

[10] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2022). BTI 2022 Country Report Kazakhstan. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2022-country-report-kazakhstan

[11] Robinson, S., Bozayeva, J., Mukhamedova, N., Djanibekov, N., Oshakbayev, D., & Petrick, M. (2021, October 24). Obstacles to the Revival of Mobile Grazing Systems in Kazakhstan. International Grassland Congress Proceedings. XXIV International Grassland Congress / XI International Rangeland Congress. https://landportal.org/library/resources/obstacles-revival-mobile-grazing-systems-kazakhstan

[12] At the time of publishing this profile, the law was only available to read in Kazakh language, found at https://adilet.zan.kz/kaz/docs/Z2100000059

[13] Hierman, B., & Nekbakhtshoev, N. (2014). Whose land is it? Land reform, minorities, and the titular “nation” in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Nationalities Papers, 42(2), 336–354. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101080009059922013857298/whose-land-it-land-reform-minorities-and

[14] Petrick, M. (2013). Competition for land and labour among individual farms and agricultural enterprises: Evidence from Kazakhstan’s grain region. Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe (IAMO). https://landportal.org/library/resources/osfpreprint46220-1cc-c11/competition-land-and-labour-among-individual-farms-and

[15] Shtaltovna, A., & Hornidge, A.-K. (2014). A comparative study on cotton production in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Department of Political & Cultural Change Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, Germany.https://landportal.org/library/resources/eldisa71451/comparative-study-cotton-production-kazakhstan-and-uzbekistan

[16] Alimaev, I., & Behnke, R. (2008). Ideology, Land Tenure and Livestock Mobility in Kazakhstan. In K. A. Galvin, R. S. Reid, R. H. Behnke Jr., & N. T. Hobbs (Eds.), Fragmentation in Semi-Arid and Arid Landscapes (pp. 151–178). Springer.

[17] IUCN, ILC, & WISP. (2011). The Land We Graze: A Synthesis of Case Studies about how Pastoralists’ Organizations Defend their Land Rights. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International Land Coalition (ILC). World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP). https://landportal.org/node/13669

[18] Robinson, S., Bozayeva, J., Mukhamedova, N., Djanibekov, N., Oshakbayev, D., & Petrick, M. (2021, October 24). Obstacles to the Revival of Mobile Grazing Systems in Kazakhstan. International Grassland Congress Proceedings. XXIV International Grassland Congress / XI International Rangeland Congress. https://landportal.org/library/resources/obstacles-revival-mobile-grazing-systems-kazakhstan​

[19] FAOSTAT. (2022). FAOSTAT database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/

[20] Haizakov, S., & Toktassynov, Z. (2016). Kazakhstan Case Study Policy Brief. The Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative, CGIAR. https://landportal.org/library/resources/mel20500117665110/kazakhstan-case-study-policy-brief

[21] Hamidov, A., Helming, K., & Balla, D. (2016). Impact of agricultural land use in Central Asia: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36(1), 6. https://landportal.org/library/resources/agrisus201600101862/impact-agricultural-land-use-central-asia-review

[22] Lerman, Z. (2010). Agricultural Recovery and Individual Land Tenure: Lessons from Central Asia. FAO/REU Policy Studies on Rural Transition. International conference commemorating Csaba Csaki’s 70th anniversary, Budapest. https://kti.krtk.hu/file/download/konf_agri/CA_AgriculturalRecoveryPaper_KTI_revise.pdf

[23] Dubuisson, E.-M. (2020). Whose World? Discourses of Protection for Land, Environment, and Natural Resources in Kazakhstan. Problems of Post-Communism, 0(0), 1–13.

[24] UN. (2020). World Urbanization Prospects 2018. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Dynamics. https://population.un.org/wup/

[25] World Bank Group, & ADB. (2021). Climate Risk Country Profile: Kazakhstan. The World Bank Group and the Asian Development Bank. https://landportal.org/library/resources/climate-risk-country-profile-kazakhstan

[26] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2022). BTI 2022 Country Report Kazakhstan. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2022-country-report-kazakhstan

[27] Yerkebulanov, Y., Daumоv, A., Bekzhanov, B., & Abdulov, M. (2020, March 5). Mining Law 2020: Kazakhstan. Mondaq. https://www.mondaq.com/energy-and-natural-resources/898712/mining-law-2020-kazakhstan

[28] Volpicelli, G. M. (2022, January 12). As Kazakhstan Descends Into Chaos, Crypto Miners Are at a Loss. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/kazakhstan-cryptocurrency-mining-unrest-energy/

[29] Kvartiuk, V., & Petrick, M. (2021). Liberal land reform in Kazakhstan? The effect on land rental and credit markets. World Development, 138, 105285. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jworlddev2020105285/liberal-land-reform-kazakhstan-effect-land

[30] Transparency Kazakhstan. (2021). Transparency Kazakhstan presented the results of monitoring the state of corruption in the country for 2020. https://landportal.org/news/2022/05/transparency-kazakhstan-presented-results-monitoring-state-corruption-country-2020

Hanson, M. (2017). Legalized Rent-Seeking: Eminent Domain in Kazakhstan. Cornell International Law Journal, 50(1), 15. https://landportal.org/library/resources/osfpreprint46131-75c-11c/legalized-rent-seeking-eminent-domain-kazakhstan

[31] Mursalimova, E., Shaymerdenova, A., & Parsova, V. (2015). Legal Aspects and Prospects for the Implementation of the Land Law of Kazakhstan. Proceedings of Scientific Methodical Conference "Baltic Surveying ’15”, 2015. https://landportal.org/library/resources/agrislv2016030782/legal-aspects-and-prospects-implementation-land-law-kazakhstan

[32] Dubuisson, E.-M. (2020). Whose World? Discourses of Protection for Land, Environment, and Natural Resources in Kazakhstan. Problems of Post-Communism, 0(0), 1–13.

[33] Ageleuov, G. (2021, September 15). The Significance Of The Land Issue Has Not Yet Been Realized By The Authorities Of Kazakhstan—CABAR.asia. Central Asian Bureau for Analytical Reporting. https://landportal.org/library/resources/significance-land-issue-has-not-yet-been-realized-authorities-kazakhstan

[34] Ageleuov, G. (2021, September 15). The Significance Of The Land Issue Has Not Yet Been Realized By The Authorities Of Kazakhstan—CABAR.asia. Central Asian Bureau for Analytical Reporting. https://landportal.org/library/resources/significance-land-issue-has-not-yet-been-realized-authorities-kazakhstan

[35]RFE/RL. (2021, May 13). Kazakh President Signs Into Law Long-Debated Bill Banning Land Ownership By Foreigners. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. https://landportal.org/news/2022/03/kazakh-president-signs-law-long-debated-bill-banning-land-ownership-foreigners

[36] (ADB, 2018)

[37] Bertelsmann Stiftung. (2022). BTI 2022 Country Report Kazakhstan. Bertelsmann Stiftung. https://landportal.org/library/resources/bti-2022-country-report-kazakhstan

[38] ICJ. (2013). Women’s Access to Justice in Kazakhstan: Identifying the Obstacles & Need for Change. International Commission of Jurists. https://landportal.org/library/resources/landwiserecord1863item1878/womens-access-justice-kazakhstan-identifying-obstacles

[39] ADB. (2018). Kazakhstan Country Gender Assessment (Kazakhstan). Asian Development Bank. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-92-9261-306-8-print-978-92-9261-307-5-electronic-publication-stock-no

[40] Hanson, M. (2017). Legalized Rent-Seeking: Eminent Domain in Kazakhstan. Cornell International Law Journal, 50(1), 15. https://landportal.org/library/resources/osfpreprint46131-75c-11c/legalized-rent-seeking-eminent-domain-kazakhstan

[41] Kvartiuk, V., & Petrick, M. (2021). Liberal land reform in Kazakhstan? The effect on land rental and credit markets. World Development, 138, 105285. https://landportal.org/library/resources/httpsdoiorg101016jworlddev2020105285/liberal-land-reform-kazakhstan-effect-land

[42] Dubuisson, E.-M. (2020). Whose World? Discourses of Protection for Land, Environment, and Natural Resources in Kazakhstan. Problems of Post-Communism, 0(0), 1–13.

[43] ADB. (2018). Kazakhstan Country Gender Assessment (Kazakhstan). Asian Development Bank. https://landportal.org/library/resources/isbn-978-92-9261-306-8-print-978-92-9261-307-5-electronic-publication-stock-no

[44] Lerman, Z. (2021). Gender gaps in Central Asia: A reassessment. Central Asian Journal of Water Research, 7(2), 47–73. https://landportal.org/library/resources/issn-2522-9060/gender-gaps-central-asia-reassessment